Healthy Adult MaleNCT07681011
Effects of Cold-Water and Cold-Air Exercise on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference
A study testing Cold-Water Exercise, Thermoneutral Water Exercise and Cold-Ambient Air Exercise in people with Healthy Adult Male and Appetite, run by Coventry University at 1 site in United Kingdom.
Trial summary
This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water… Read more about this study
- Who is it for?
- Ages 18 to 65 years, men onlyHealthy volunteers can take part
- Conditions the study is for
- Healthy Adult Male, Appetite, Energy Intake
- What is being tested?
- Cold-Water Exercise, Thermoneutral Water Exercise and Cold-Ambient Air Exercise
- Could I receive a placebo?
- No, everyone receives an active treatment
- How many people
- 11 participants
- Where
- 1 siteUnited Kingdom
- Study dates
- 7 Jan 2025to 2 Jul 2025
- Phase
- Interventional
- Are there results?
- None posted in the registry
Key requirements
Who can take part, as listed by the sponsor. Only the study team can confirm whether you are eligible, so take this list to your doctor.
- Ages 18 to 65 years
- Men only
- Healthy volunteers accepted
- Adult, Older adult
Who may be able to join
- Healthy males aged 18-65 years
- Living in the UK
- Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines
- Body mass stable (<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study
- Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise
- Able to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance test
Show all 12Show fewer
- Low cognitive restraint score on the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire Revised
- 18-item (TFEQ-R18)
- Able to consume the standardised breakfast and ad libitum pasta meal provided during the study
- Able to provide written informed consent
- Willing to complete study questionnaires and experimental assessments
- Willing to undergo core temperature measurement via self-inserted rectal thermistor and body composition assessment
Who cannot join
- Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions
- Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise
- Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries
- Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers)
- Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism
- Smoking, drug misuse, or alcohol abuse
Show all 13Show fewer
- Current musculoskeletal injury or condition that could be worsened by exercise
- History of eating disorders or restrained eating behaviour
- Shift work or sleep deprivation affecting study participation
- Unable to fast before experimental sessions
- Unable to tolerate the cold-water familiarisation/tolerance procedure
- Unable to consume the foods provided as part of the standardised breakfast or ad libitum meal due to dietary restrictions or allergies
- Unable to commit to study requirements
Trial locations and contacts
1 site in 1 country.
United Kingdom1 site
Centre for Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise Sciences, Research Laboratory, Coventry University
Coventry, CV1 5FB
About this study
Official title: Effects of Exercising in Cold-Water and Cold-Ambient Air Versus a Thermoneutral Equivalent on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference: A Crossover Study in Healthy Males
This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Appetite responses were assessed throughout each trial, and participants were provided with an ad libitum meal after exercise to measure energy intake. Food preference was assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The study aimed to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence acute post-exercise eating behaviour.
Read the detailed description
Exercise performed in cold environments may influence thermoregulatory responses and subsequent eating behaviour differently compared with exercise performed under thermoneutral conditions. Previous research suggests that cold exposure may increase post-exercise energy intake; however, the influence of environmental temperature and exercise medium (water versus air) on appetite regulation and food-related behaviour remains unclear.
This study used a randomised repeated-measures crossover design to investigate the effects of cold and thermoneutral exercise conditions on appetite, energy intake, and food preference in healthy males.
Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials: a no-exercise control condition and four experimental exercise conditions consisting of 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Trials were separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.
Appetite responses were assessed using visual analogue scales throughout each trial. Following exercise, participants consumed an ad libitum meal to assess acute post-exercise energy intake. Food preference responses, including food appeal and preference measures, were assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire.
The primary objective was to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence post-exercise energy intake. Secondary objectives were to examine effects on subjective appetite and food preference measures.
This study provides insight into how exercising in different thermal environments may influence immediate eating behaviour following exercise.
- Conditions
- Healthy Adult Male, Appetite, Energy Intake
- Being tested
- Control Condition, Cold-Water Exercise, Thermoneutral Water Exercise, Cold-Ambient Air Exercise, Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise
- Keywords
- Cold-ambient air exercise, Thermoregulation, Appetite, Food preference, Crossover study, Cold exposure, Energy Intake, Cold-Water Exercise, Healthy Adult Male
- Medical subject headings
- Food Preferences
What participants receive
What participants receive. In a randomised study each person is assigned to one group by chance.
Control ConditionOther
Resting control condition with no exercise exposure.
Cold-Water ExerciseOther
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 16°C water.
Thermoneutral Water ExerciseOther
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 35°C water.
Cold-Ambient Air ExerciseOther
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 6°C ambient air.
Thermoneutral Ambient Air ExerciseOther
Arm-leg rowing exercise performed in 26°C ambient air.
| Study group | Role | What they receive |
|---|---|---|
| Control Condition | Active comparator | Resting control condition with no exercise performed. Participants completed the same standardised laboratory procedures and outcome assessments under resting conditions. Receives: Other: Control Condition |
| Cold-Water Exercise | Experimental | Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold water at 16°C. Receives: Other: Cold-Water Exercise |
| Thermoneutral Water Exercise | Experimental | Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral water at 35°C. Receives: Other: Thermoneutral Water Exercise |
| Cold-Ambient Air Exercise | Experimental | Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold ambient air at 6°C. Receives: Other: Cold-Ambient Air Exercise |
| Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise | Experimental | Participants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral ambient air at 26°C. Receives: Other: Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise |
What is being measured
The primary outcome is the main question the study is designed to answer.
Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake
Energy intake consumed during an ad libitum homogeneous pasta meal provided after each 30-minute experimental/control condition. The mass of food consumed was determined by subtracting the mass of food remaining (including leftovers on the plate and cutlery). Absolute energy intake was calculated using the nutritional information provided by the food manufacturer.
Measured: 30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Subjective appetite responses
Subjective appetite responses including hunger, fullness, satisfaction, and prospective food consumption assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 mm (not at all) to 100 mm (extremely). Higher scores indicate greater subjective appetite sensations.
Measured: Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal.
Food preference and food reward responses
Food preference and reward responses assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ). Outcomes include explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting, and fat and sweet appeal bias scores. Higher scores indicate greater preference or reward response for the respective food category (fat or sweet).
Measured: 15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal.
Secondary outcomes (4)
Core body temperature
Changes in core body temperature measured continuously using a rectal thermistor during and after each experimental/control condition.
Measured: During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period.
Energy expenditure
Energy expenditure during the exercise/control condition estimated from breath-by-breath oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using indirect calorimetry.
Measured: During the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Skin temperature and mean body temperature responses
Skin temperature was measured at four sites (chest, bicep, thigh, and calf) using skin temperature probes. Mean skin temperature and mean body temperature were calculated to assess changes in peripheral and overall thermal status.
Measured: 5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Thermal sensation and shivering responses
Thermal sensation was assessed using the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 7-point Thermal Sensation Scale, ranging from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot), where 0 indicates thermal neutrality.
Shivering responses were assessed using the Bedside Shivering Assessment Scale (BSAS) ranging from 0 (no shivering) to 3 (severe shivering), with higher scores indicating greater shivering severity.
Measured: During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals.
Timeline
From the start of the study to its completion; the mark is today. Estimated dates are the sponsor’s plan.
- First posted2 Jul 2026
- Study start7 Jan 2025
- Primary completion2 Jul 2025
- Study completion2 Jul 2025
Resources
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govThe registry entry this page is built from, with its full change history.
- Publications (2)Papers the sponsor has linked to this study.
- Other trials for Healthy Adult MaleStudies of the same condition, open and under way.
- What the trial phases meanHow a treatment moves from first tests in people to approval.
More details
For doctors and researchers: how the study is designed, who runs it, and its registry IDs.
Study design
- Study type
- Interventional
- Phase
- Phase N/A
- Primary purpose
- Basic science
- Allocation
- Randomised
- Intervention model
- Crossover
- Model description
- Participants completed five laboratory trials in a repeated-measures crossover design. All participants first completed a control condition, followed by four experimental exercise conditions completed in a randomised order: cold-water exercise (16°C), thermoneutral water exercise (35°C), cold-ambient air exercise (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air exercise (26°C). Each participant completed all conditions, with trials separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Enrolment
- 11 participants (actual)
Sponsor and investigators
- Lead sponsor
- Coventry University
- Sponsor type
- University, hospital or other
- Responsible party
- Principal investigator, Marie Hutson, Coventry University
IDs, dates and publications
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07681011
- Sponsor's protocol ID
- P180097
- Status last verified
- Jul 2026
- First submitted
- 26 Jun 2026
- Last updated
- 6 Jul 2026
- Results posted
- No
- Data monitoring committee
- No
- FDA-regulated drug
- No
- FDA-regulated device
- No
- Individual data sharing
- No: Individual participant data will not be shared. Study results will be reported in aggregate form through publications and presentations. Data will be retained securely in accordance with Coventry University research governance and data protection requirements.
Publications
Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, King JA, Thackray AE, Stensel DJ, Owen A, Broom DR. Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite. 2023 Jan 1;180:106375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375. Epub 2022 Nov 12.
PubMed 36375602Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, Broom DR. Effects of cold-water immersion on energy expenditure, ad-libitum energy intake and appetite in healthy adults. Physiol Behav. 2025 Jul 1;296:114914. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114914. Epub 2025 Apr 10.
PubMed 40221072
Study at a glance
From the registry record, last updated by the sponsor on 6 Jul 2026. Recruitment status is as the sponsor reported it: confirm with the study team.
- Official title
- Effects of Exercising in Cold-Water and Cold-Ambient Air Versus a Thermoneutral Equivalent on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Food Preference: A Crossover Study in Healthy Males
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07681011
- Acronym / sponsor ID
- P180097
- Conditions
- Healthy Adult Male, Appetite, Energy Intake
- Keywords
- Cold-ambient air exercise, Thermoregulation, Appetite, Food preference, Crossover study, Cold exposure, Energy Intake, Cold-Water Exercise
- Study type
- Interventional
- Recruitment status
- Completed
- Enrolment
- 11 participants (actual)
- Lead sponsor
- Coventry UniversityUniversity, hospital or other
- Study start
- 7 Jan 2025 (actual)
- Primary completion
- 2 Jul 2025 (actual)
- Study completion
- 2 Jul 2025 (actual)
- First posted
- 2 Jul 2026 (actual)
- Results
- Not posted in the source record
Clinical summary
The research question as the sponsor registered it. This describes what the study plans to test, not what it found.
This study investigated whether exercising in cold environments affects appetite, energy intake, and food preference compared with exercising in thermoneutral conditions. Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials as part of a crossover study: a control trial and four exercise trials performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Appetite responses were assessed throughout each trial, and participants were provided with an ad libitum meal after exercise to measure energy intake. Food preference was assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. The study aimed to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence acute post-exercise eating behaviour.
Detailed description
Exercise performed in cold environments may influence thermoregulatory responses and subsequent eating behaviour differently compared with exercise performed under thermoneutral conditions. Previous research suggests that cold exposure may increase post-exercise energy intake; however, the influence of environmental temperature and exercise medium (water versus air) on appetite regulation and food-related behaviour remains unclear.
This study used a randomised repeated-measures crossover design to investigate the effects of cold and thermoneutral exercise conditions on appetite, energy intake, and food preference in healthy males.
Eleven healthy males completed five laboratory trials: a no-exercise control condition and four experimental exercise conditions consisting of 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold-water (16°C), thermoneutral water (35°C), cold-ambient air (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air (26°C). Trials were separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.
Appetite responses were assessed using visual analogue scales throughout each trial. Following exercise, participants consumed an ad libitum meal to assess acute post-exercise energy intake. Food preference responses, including food appeal and preference measures, were assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire.
The primary objective was to determine whether environmental temperature and exercise medium influence post-exercise energy intake. Secondary objectives were to examine effects on subjective appetite and food preference measures.
This study provides insight into how exercising in different thermal environments may influence immediate eating behaviour following exercise.
Study design
- Primary purpose
- Basic science
- Allocation
- Randomised
- Intervention model
- Crossover
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Number of arms
- 5
- Model description
- Participants completed five laboratory trials in a repeated-measures crossover design. All participants first completed a control condition, followed by four experimental exercise conditions completed in a randomised order: cold-water exercise (16°C), thermoneutral water exercise (35°C), cold-ambient air exercise (6°C), and thermoneutral ambient air exercise (26°C). Each participant completed all conditions, with trials separated by a minimum seven-day washout period.
| Arm | Type | Receives |
|---|---|---|
| Control Condition | Active comparator | Other: Control ConditionResting control condition with no exercise performed. Participants completed the same standardised laboratory procedures and outcome assessments under resting conditions. |
| Cold-Water Exercise | Experimental | Other: Cold-Water ExerciseParticipants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold water at 16°C. |
| Thermoneutral Water Exercise | Experimental | Other: Thermoneutral Water ExerciseParticipants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral water at 35°C. |
| Cold-Ambient Air Exercise | Experimental | Other: Cold-Ambient Air ExerciseParticipants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in cold ambient air at 6°C. |
| Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise | Experimental | Other: Thermoneutral Ambient Air ExerciseParticipants completed 30 minutes of arm-leg rowing exercise performed in thermoneutral ambient air at 26°C. |
Who may qualify
- Ages
- 18 to 65 years
- Sex
- Male only
- Healthy volunteers
- Accepted
- Age groups
- Adult, Older adult
Key inclusion criteria (12 listed)
- Healthy males aged 18-65 years
- Living in the UK
- Recreationally active and meeting current physical activity guidelines
- Body mass stable (<2 kg change) during the 3 months prior to the study
- Able to complete moderate-intensity arm-leg rowing exercise
Key exclusion criteria (13 listed)
- Diagnosed cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, or renal disease, or symptoms suggestive of these conditions
- Any contraindication to moderate-intensity exercise
- Conditions increasing risk during cold exposure, including history of cold-induced asthma, Raynaud's phenomenon, cold urticaria, or other non-freezing cold injuries
- Cold-habituated individuals (e.g., regular cold-water swimmers)
- Current medication known to alter body weight or metabolism
Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening; this overview does not establish that a patient qualifies. Full inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Interventions
| Intervention | Type | Arms |
|---|---|---|
| Control ConditionResting control condition with no exercise exposure. | Other | Control Condition |
| Cold-Water ExerciseArm-leg rowing exercise performed in 16°C water. | Other | Cold-Water Exercise |
| Thermoneutral Water ExerciseArm-leg rowing exercise performed in 35°C water. | Other | Thermoneutral Water Exercise |
| Cold-Ambient Air ExerciseArm-leg rowing exercise performed in 6°C ambient air. | Other | Cold-Ambient Air Exercise |
| Thermoneutral Ambient Air ExerciseArm-leg rowing exercise performed in 26°C ambient air. | Other | Thermoneutral Ambient Air Exercise |
Primary outcome
Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake
Time frame: 30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Energy intake consumed during an ad libitum homogeneous pasta meal provided after each 30-minute experimental/control condition. The mass of food consumed was determined by subtracting the mass of food remaining (including leftovers on the plate and cutlery). Absolute energy intake was calculated using the nutritional information provided by the food manufacturer.
Subjective appetite responses
Time frame: Before and after breakfast, before the 30-minute experimental/control condition, during the 30-minute experimental/control condition, and before and after the ad libitum meal.
Subjective appetite responses including hunger, fullness, satisfaction, and prospective food consumption assessed using a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) ranging from 0 mm (not at all) to 100 mm (extremely). Higher scores indicate greater subjective appetite sensations.
Food preference and food reward responses
Time frame: 15 minutes after completion of each 30-minute experimental/control trial and 15-minutes before the ad libitum meal.
Food preference and reward responses assessed using the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire (LFPQ). Outcomes include explicit liking, explicit wanting, implicit wanting, and fat and sweet appeal bias scores. Higher scores indicate greater preference or reward response for the respective food category (fat or sweet).
4 secondary outcomes
Core body temperature
Time frame: During the 30-minute experimental/control condition and during the 60-minute post-exposure recovery period.
Energy expenditure
Time frame: During the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Skin temperature and mean body temperature responses
Time frame: 5-minutes before and 5-minutes after the 30-minute experimental/control condition.
Thermal sensation and shivering responses
Time frame: During the 30-minute experimental/control condition at 10-minute intervals.
Results and safety
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
Research links
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govLast updated by the sponsor 6 Jul 2026.
- Background: PubMed 36375602Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, King JA, Thackray AE, Stensel DJ, Owen A, Broom DR. Influence of water-based exercise on energy intake, appetite, and appetite-related hormones in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Appetite. 2023 Jan 1;180:106375. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2022.106375. Epub 2022 Nov 12.
- Background: PubMed 40221072Grigg MJ, Thake CD, Allgrove JE, Broom DR. Effects of cold-water immersion on energy expenditure, ad-libitum energy intake and appetite in healthy adults. Physiol Behav. 2025 Jul 1;296:114914. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114914. Epub 2025 Apr 10.
- Individual participant dataSharing planned: No. Individual participant data will not be shared. Study results will be reported in aggregate form through publications and presentations. Data will be retained securely in accordance with Coventry University research governance and data protection requirements.
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Referral and contact
AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals. Contact the study team or a site listed below; they decide who can take part. This study is not recruiting at the moment.
The record lists no contact. Use the official record to reach the sponsor.
1 site in 1 country: see every site and its status.
Questions about this trial
What is this clinical trial studying?
A study testing Cold-Water Exercise, Thermoneutral Water Exercise and Cold-Ambient Air Exercise in people with Healthy Adult Male and Appetite, run by Coventry University at 1 site in United Kingdom.
The full registered description is in the About this study section and the official record.
Who may be eligible to take part?
The sponsor lists 12 inclusion and 13 exclusion criteria. Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening, so read the full criteria and contact a listed site.
Is this clinical trial currently recruiting?
The record says: finished, as of the sponsor's last update on 6 Jul 2026. Status can change between updates, so confirm with the study contact before making plans.
Where is the study taking place?
The record lists 1 site in United Kingdom. Whether a site is taking part right now should be confirmed with that site. See every site.
What are the possible benefits and risks?
They depend on the study and the treatment, and no study can promise a benefit. The study team explains the known risks during informed consent, before anyone joins; the record itself does not list them.
Are results available for this study?
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
How can a doctor refer a patient or contact the research team?
The record lists no contact. The official record names the sponsor, who can be asked directly. AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals.
What does the primary outcome measure?
Post-exercise ad libitum energy intake (time frame: 30 minutes after completion of the 30-minute experimental/control condition.). The study lists 3 primary outcomes in all. It is what the study was designed to measure, not a finding.
Where can I read the original study information?
On the ClinicalTrials.gov record for NCT07681011, which also lists 2 linked publications.
Does a listing mean the treatment is approved or proven to work?
No. A listing means the study is registered. It does not show that the treatment is safe, works, or is approved by a regulator.
How often is this information updated?
AzTrials copies changed records from ClinicalTrials.gov every night and reloads the whole registry every week. The sponsor last updated this record on 6 Jul 2026.